Guidance kits for Mark 80 series air-delivered bombs

11 November 2024air-delivered bombs, air-delivered munitions, air-delivered weapons, guided weapon, JDAM, JDAM-ER, Lizard, LJDAM, MK 80, MK 81, MK 82, MK 83, MK 84, munitions, Paveway, precision guided munition, SPICE

Trevor Ball & N.R. Jenzen-Jones

Editor’s Note: This blog post is linked to entries in the Open-source Munitions Portal (OSMP), a joint project between ARES and Airwars, available at https://osmp.ngo/.

OSMP Entry Nos. 456, 496, 497, 498, 618, 619, 620, 623, 625, 688, 689, 690, 695, 723, 728, 735, 751, etc.

An Introduction to the MK 80 Series

The Mark 80 (MK 80) series of general-purpose air-delivered bombs includes the MK 84 2,000-pound-class bomb, MK 83 1,000-pound-class bomb, MK 82 500-pound-class bomb, and the MK 81 250-pound-class bomb. For air-delivered bombs, weight classes are used to express the nominal total weight of the bomb. In reality, the total weight varies based on construction techniques, composition, fuzing, and other features. The total explosive weight explosive weight of a ‘general-purpose’ air-delivered bomb is typically around 40% to 50% of its nominal weight class. For example, the MK 84 contains 945 lbs (429 kg) of explosive fill (47.3% of the nominal weight), the MK 83 contains 445 lbs (202 kg; 44.5%), and the MK 82 contains 195 lbs (88.5 kg; 39.0%). Whilst the MK 81, 82, 83, and 84 air-delivered bombs are the three munitions that strictly comprise the so-called ‘Mark 80 series’, the term is often applied to other munitions in the same weight classes that are largely interchangeable with the MK 80 series, accepting most of the same accessories or modifications (such as guidance kits), and being carried and employed by the same aircraft. Perhaps most similar to their progenitor munitions are the BLU-117, BLU-110, and BLU-111—variants of the MK 84, MK 83, and MK 82, respectively—which feature a thermally resistant exterior coating, and a more insensitive explosive fill. The munitions are designed for use on naval ships.

There are also penetrator bombs (often referred to as ‘bunker busters’), such as the BLU-109, that are designed with a more robust metal casing so as to better penetrate buildings and fortifications before functioning. These penetrator bombs sacrifice explosive payload for a reinforced body capable of punching through concrete and reinforcing bar, whilst still fitting within their nominal weight class. The BLU-109, a bomb in the 2,000-pound weight class, carries a significantly reduced explosive payload when compared with the MK 84 from which it is derived—one variant is loaded with just 535 lbs (243 kg) of explosives, compared to the 945 lbs (429 kg) of a MK 84.

Many countries produce their own MK 80-series bombs, or patterns of bomb that are compatible with MK 80 tail fins, fuzes, and guidance kits. One notable variant of the MK 80 series is Israel’s MPR series, which are visually similar and designed to be interchangeable with the MK 80 series. Israel’s MPR series comprises three variants: the MPR 2000, MPR 1000, and MPR 500 (where the number corresponds with the weight class of the bomb). The MPR series is designed to offer better penetration capabilities when compared with the MK 80 series, and are believed to carry reduced explosive payloads compared to the standard MK 80 series.

**Figure 1** *The MK 80 series of general-purpose air-delivered bombs as manufactured by Brazilian company AEQ (source: AEQ).*

Bomb Guidance Kits

The MK 80 series—and other bombs like them—are unguided munitions, often called ‘dumb bombs’ or ‘iron bombs’. They have no guidance capability, and on their own are not precise munitions. Guidance kits were developed to convert such unguided bombs into precision guided munitions (PGMs). Precision guided munitions are those which can alter their flight path to strike a target with a high degree of precision. Guided weapons are increasingly important tools in the arsenals of contemporary armed forces:

“…many Western militaries have used PGMs almost exclusively in recent decades. This stands in stark contrast to the conventional, unguided employment of aerial bombs en masse during the Second World War and throughout the Cold War. By the time of Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan (2001–02), guided weapons accounted for more than half of all air-delivered munitions employed by U.S. forces.”
– Jenzen-Jones & Shanley, 2021

Guidance kits are fitted to unguided bombs to help ‘steer’ them to their target, typically by using actuated control surfaces such as fins and canards. The guidance principle that is used to guide the munition to the target depends on the specific kit, but they commonly use Global Position System (GPS) and inertial navigation system (INS) data. Some kits also use laser guidance, or electro-optical (EO or TV) guidance.

Several key milestones in the development of guided air-delivered bombs came immediately prior to and during the Second World War. Guided bombs of this period include the German Ruhrstahl PC 1400 X (or ‘Fritz X’), which modified a PC 1400 3,100-pound (1,400 kg) armour-piercing bomb, and the American Aeronca Aircraft Glide Bomb 1, which was built around an M34 2,000-pound general-purpose bomb. Post-war developments were largely led by the United States, with weapons such as the ASM-A-1 Tarzon seeing operational use in the Korean War. By the Vietnam War, modern guidance kits for the MK 80 series had been introduced with the introduction of the laser-guided PAVEWAY 1, first combat-tested in May 1968.

**Figure 2** *A German Ruhrstahl PC 1400 X (‘Fritz-X’) guided aerial bomb (source: U.S. Air Force Museum).*

Today, there are many countries that use the MK 80 series of unguided bombs, and there are several guidance kits or guidance kit ‘families’ that are compatible with these munitions. These include the Joint Direct Attack Munition (JDAM) kit, JDAM Extended Range (JDAM-ER) kit, and Paveway kit. Other countries, such as Israel and Turkey, make their own domestic guidance kits for the MK 80 series that are broadly comparable to JDAM, JDAM-ER, or Paveway kits. Israel’s Rafael manufactures the Smart, Precise-Impact and Cost Effective (SPICE) guidance kits, which are similar to JDAM (SPICE 2000) and JDAM-ER (SPICE 1000) kits, with additional electro-optical (EO) and terrain matching capability. Israel’s Elbit manufactures the Lizard series of guidance kits which use laser guidance, similar to Paveway kits. Kits that can be quickly fitted to an unguided air-delivered bomb without modification to the base munition are sometimes called ‘bolt-on’ kits.

Join Direct Attack Munition (JDAM)

The Joint Direct Attack Munition (JDAM; see Figure 3) is the most widespread and numerous of bomb guidance kits. The tail kit (green in Figure 4) attaches to the ‘dumb’ bomb (yellow in Figure 4) to provide a guidance capability, converting the unguided air-delivered bomb into a PGM. JDAM kits use inertial navigational system (INS) and global positioning system (GPS) for guidance. JDAM kits enable the munition to be precise, with a circular error probable (CEP) of 5 metres or less with GPS data. There are JDAM kits compatible with all of the MK 80 series, except for the 250-pound MK 81.

**Figure 3** *A GBU-31 JDAM built around the MK 84 2,000-pound-class unguided air-delivered bomb (source: U.S. Air Force).*

**Figure 4** *A diagram showing the general arrangement of a JDAM guidance kit for an unguided bomb (source: Boeing).*

The specific nomenclature for JDAM kits is ‘KMU-xxx’. In U.S. service, an unguided bomb paired with a guidance kit takes on new nomenclature as a ‘GBU-xx’. For example, a MK 84 2,000-pound-class bomb paired with the KMU-556/B variant of the JDAM kit is thereafter referred to as a GBU-31(V)1/B. JDAM pairings with other 2,000-pound bomb variants, such as the BLU-109 or BLU-117, are also referred to using the GBU-31 designation, but each is indicated with a distinct variant number. For example, a BLU-109/B bomb paired with a KMU-557/B guidance kit is designated the GBU-31(V)3/B. For convenience—as a number of sub-variants exist, and designations may change based on Air Force or Navy service—these variant designations are sometimes simplified to ‘GBU-31 V1’, ‘GBU-31 V2’, etc. or simply ‘GBU-31’. The MK 83 series (or other 1,000-pound-class bomb) paired with a JDAM kit is known as a GBU-32, whilst a MK 82 series (or other 500-pound-class bomb) paired with a JDAM kit is known as a GBU-38.

**Figure 5** A MK 84 2,000-pound-class air-delivered bomb fitted with a JDAM guidance kit. In this configuration, the munition would receive a ‘GBU-31’ designation in U.S. service (source: USAF/Staff Sgt. Jason McCasland).

Table 1 – Joint Direct Attack Munition designations (key models)

Bomb designation	Bomb weight class	Explosive weight	Functional type	JDAM kit designation	Complete munition designation	Shorthand designation
MK 81	250 lb	100 lb	HE (GP)	N/A	N/A	N/A
MK 82	500 lb	195 lb	HE (GP)	KMU-572xx	GBU-38(V)1/B or GBU-38(V)2/B	GBU-38 V1 or GBU-38 V2
BLU-111	500 lb	192 lb	HE (GP)	KMU-572xx	GBU-38(V)1/B or GBU-38(V)2/B	GBU-38 V1 or GBU-38 V2
BLU-126	500 lb	28 lb	HE (low collateral)	KMU-572xx	GBU-38(V)3/B or GBU-38 (V)4/B	GBU-38 V3 or GBU-38 V4
BLU-129	500 lb	300 lb	HE (low collateral)	KMU-572xx
MK 83	1,000 lb	445 lb	HE (GP)	KMU-559xx	GBU-32(V)1/B or GBU-32 (V)2/B	GBU-32 V1 or GBU-32 V2
BLU-110	1,000 lb	385 lb	HE (GP)	KMU-559xx	GBU-32 (V)2/B or GBU-35(V)1/B	GBU-32 V2 or GBU-35 V1
MK 84	2,000 lb	945 lb	HE (GP)	KMU-556xx	GBU-31(V)1/B or GBU-31(V)2/B	GBU-31 V1
BLU-109/B	2,000 lb	535 lb	HE (penetrator)	KMU-558xx	GBU-31(V)3/B or GBU-31(V)4/B	GBU-31 V3
BLU-117A/B	2,000 lb	886 lb	HE (GP)	KMU-556xx	GBU-31(V)2/B	GBU-31 V2

Notes: This is a simplified table that does not enumerate subvariants of specific JDAM kits. The MK 81 does not have a compatible JDAM kit.
Sources: U.S. Air Force, U.S. Navy, Boeing, Designation Systems/Andreas Parch

Joint Direct Attack Munition – Extended Range (JDAM-ER)

The Joint Direct Attack Munition – Extended Range (JDAM-ER; see Figure 6) marries the MK 82 500-pound-class bomb and JDAM guidance kit combination (i.e., a GBU-38) to a ‘glide bomb’ wing kit developed by the Australian Defence Force. This provides a munition with at least three times the range of a standard GBU-38 500-pound-class guided aerial bomb, enabling it to reach targets more than 45 miles (72 km) away. Australian experiments with glide bombs from the 1970s–1990s were re-examined in the early 2000s following renewed industry interest, and the resultant JDAM-ER entered service with the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) in 2015. Some JDAM-ER munitions provided to Ukraine have been upgraded to integrate home-on-GPS-jam seekers, which allow the munition to target a GPS jammer that prevents it from being guided to its original target (see Figure 7).

**Figure 6** *AMK 82 500-pound-class air-delivered bomb fitted with a JDAM-ER guidance kit (source: OSINTtechnical via the* Open-source Munitions Portal).

**Figure 7** *A JDAM-ER munition (left) fitted with what is most likely an aftermarket home-on-GPS-jam seeker in its nose (source: Archer83Able via the* Open-source Munitions Portal).

Laser Joint Direct Attack Munition (LJDAM)

The Laser Joint Direct Attack Munition (LJDAM or Laser JDAM) is a munition assembled using a JDAM kit with the addition of the DSU-38 Laser Sensor. The laser sensor is compatible with basic JDAM kits and JDAM-ER kits. The LJDAM can be distinguished from other JDAM variants by the visible laser sensor in the nose of the bomb, as seen in Figure 8. The LJDAM can precisely hit targets moving at up to “highway speeds”. The Laser JDAM is compatible with 500-pound and 2,000-pound MK 80 series bombs. A GBU-38 (500-pound bomb) with the DSU-38 Laser Sensor added is designated the GBU-54, whilst the addition of a DSU-38 to the GBU-31 (2,000-pound bomb) results in the GBU-56.

**Figure 8** *Four MK84 2,000-pound bombs fitted with LJDAM kits. The combined designation for each of these munitions is ‘GBU-56’ (source: USAF/ Senior Airman Zachary Rufus).*

SPICE 1000 & SPICE 2000

The SPICE 2000 and SPICE 1000 kits (see Figure 9) are developed by Rafael Advanced Defense Systems of Israel. The SPICE kits include electro-optical (EO) guidance with terrain matching, as well as GPS and INS. The SPICE 2000 is fitted to 2,000-pound bombs, such as the MK 84 or MPR 2000, and functions similarly to a JDAM. The SPICE 1000 is for 1,000-pound bombs, such as the MK 83 or MPR 1000, and features deployable wings, similar to those of the JDAM-ER. The SPICE 2000 and SPICE1000 are distinct from the SPICE 250, which is a purpose-built guided munition similar in form and function to the GBU-39, rather than a kit added to an unguided air-delivered bomb.

**Figure 9** *Left: A SPICE 2000 guidance kit fitted to a 2,000-pound bomb; Right: A mock-up of a SPICE 1000 glide-bomb kit fitted to a 1,000-pound bomb (sources: VishnuNDTV; Bin im Garten/Wikimedia).*

Paveway

The Paveway family of guidance kits modify MK 80-series bombs to form laser-guided munitions. First introduced during the Vietnam War (see Figure 10), the Paveway series sees the addition of a guidance section with actuated forward fins (canards) onto the nose of the bomb, which makes these munitions (see Figure 11) visually distinct from JDAM variants. The Paveway kits also have a distinctly different tail section from that of the JDAM kits. The ‘Enhanced’ series of Paveway kits also provide GPS and INS guidance, in addition to laser guidance. These are sometimes referred to as ‘Dual-Mode Laser Guided Bombs’ (DMLGB). Paveway kits have been produced for all four weight classes of MK 80 series bombs. Like JDAMs, Paveway kits when paired with MK 80-series bombs are given a ‘GBU-xx’ designation, which varies with the kit and bomb model. For example, a Paveway II built around a MK 84 or BLU-109 is known as a GBU-10. The same MK 84 or BLU-109 bomb fitted with a Paveway III kit would be designated a GBU-24.

**Figure 10** A U.S. Air Force F-4D Phantom II fighter-bomber from the 435th Tactical Fighter Squadron, 8th Tactical Fighter Wing, armed with two GBU-10 laser-guided bombs, in the skies over Vietnam (source: U.S. Air Force).

Table 2 – Paveway Designations (key models)

Bomb designation	Bomb weight class	Paveway II LGB kit designation	Paveway III LGB kit designation	Enhanced Paveway II DMLGB kit designation	Enhanced Paveway III DMLGB kit designation
MK 81	250 lb	GBU MK-81	N/A	N/A	N/A
MK 82	500 lb	GBU-12	GBU-22	EGBU-12	N/A
MK 83	1,000 lb	GBU-16	N/A	EGBU-16	N/A
MK 84	2,000 lb	GBU-10	GBU-24	EGBU-10	GBU-24
BLU-109	2,000 lb	GBU-10	GBU-24	EGBU-10	GBU-27
BLU-113	5,000 lb	N/A	GBU-28	N/A	GBU-28

Sources: U.S. Air Force, Lockheed Martin.

**Figure 11** *APaveway II Plus guidance kit installed on a MK 82 500-pound-class bomb (source: Lockheed Martin).*

Lizard

Elbit’s series of Lizard laser-guidance kits are similar in function and appearance to the Paveway series (see Figure 12). The Lizard-2 and Lizard-3 use only laser guidance, whilst the Lizard-4 model also incorporates GPS and INS guidance. The Lizard-3 is claimed to be highly effective against targets moving up to 100 km/h (62 mph). The Lizard kit family is compatible with MK 80-series bombs, as well as the Israeli MPR series.

Other Guidance Kits

There are other notable guidance kits, such as the Powered JDAM (PJDAM) and QUICKSINK (see Figure 13). The PJDAM is similar to the JDAM-ER, except it also incorporates a turbojet engine for powered propulsion, converting the bomb into a missile and extending the range to more than 300 nautical miles (556 km). A PJDAM variant that incorporates a fuel tank increases this range to more than 700 nautical miles (1,296 km). The PJDAM is only compatible with the MK 82 and other munitions of the same form factor.

QUICKSINK is a joint program by the US Air Force Research Laboratory and US Navy to enable ‘plug-and-play’ of different seeker components with existing guidance kits to reduce costs. A QUICKSINK test was conducted using a GBU-31 JDAM kit modified to include a new all-weather, maritime-enabled seeker to maximise the munition’s effect against enemy ships.

**Figure 13** *Left: PJDAM rendering; Right: QUICKSINK prototype (sources: Boeing; AFRL).*

Other countries also produced bomb guidance kits that function similarly to those discussed above (see Figure 14). These include the United Arab Emirates’ Thunder series, China’s Fei Teng (FT) series, and Russia’s Universal Gliding and Correction Module (UMPK) series. The UAE’s Thunder kits are comparable to the JDAM, using IMU and GPS guidance, and are compatible with MK 80-series bombs. The Thunder series also has the optional ability to add a semi-active laser (SAL) seeker, broadly comparable to the LJDAM. China’s FT series is more complex, with a more extensive range of products and capabilities, but together these cover the range of capabilities offered by most of the Western bomb guidance kits, including the JDAM, JDAM-ER, LJDAM, and Paveway kits. The Russian UMPK functions somewhat like a JDAM-ER, using Russia’s GLONASS alternative to GPS and IMU, with glide wings to extend the functional range of the modified munition.

**Figure 14** *Left: UAE Thunder P-4 kit fitted to a MK 84; Centre: Chinese FT-2 kit fitted to a 500 kg bomb; Right: Russian UMPK (sources: Edge; ODIN; Rob Lee).*

Diagnostic Remnants of Bomb Guidance Kits

Remnants of bomb guidance kits will often survive the functioning of the munition to which they are attached. The relative separation from the explosive charge, and the manner in which they are attached to the bomb body, contribute to them surviving detonation. These remnant components can often provide useful information about the munition used in a particular strike, including its country of origin. Because the bomb guidance kits discussed herein are designed to be compatible with specific bomb weight classes or variants, guidance kit fragments can also help definitively identify the weight class of bomb used in a given strike. The Open-source Munitions Portal (OSMP) records munitions remnants that include many of the bomb guidance kits described herein, providing tentative model identification and often supplementing this with ‘Analyst Notes’ containing further technical details. A selection of remnants from different sources is provided below for reference.

**Figure 15** Left: Tail fin from a JDAM kit; Top right: JDAM tail section; Bottom right: SPICE series tail section (sources: alalam_moraselin via the Open-source Munitions Portal; Hamza20300; QudsN via the Open-source Munitions Portal).

**Figure 16** *JDAM remnants with markings (source: Amnesty International).*

**Figure 17** *Top left: MK 82 and Paveway II fragments; Bottom left: Paveway II control surface Top right: Paveway II wing assembly fragment; Bottom right: Paveway II wing assembly fragment (source: Bellingcat).*

**Figure 18** *Left: A section of Paveway tail fin recovered from Mastaba market, Yemen; Right: Paveway tail fin recovered from MSF Hospital in Yemen (Sources: Human Rights Watch; Amnesty International).*

**Figure 19** *Left: pneumatic fin (canard) actuation controller from a Paveway guidance control unit; Right: Paveway fragments (inside red square) (sources:* *Navvar Şaban; Amnesty International).*

Sources

Air Force Research Laboratory. n.d. ‘AFRL’s QUICKSINK Weapon Demo’. <https://afresearchlab.com/technology/quicksink/>.

Amnesty International. 2009. Fuelling Conflict: Foreign Arms Supplies to Israel/Gaza. <https://www.amnesty.org/en/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/mde150122009en.pdf>

Amnesty International. 2016. ‘Yemen: Evidence indicates US-made bomb was used in attack on MSF hospital’ (19 September). <https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/press-release/2016/09/yemen-evidence-indicates-us-made-bomb-was-used-in-attack-on-msf-hospital/>.

Amnesty International. 2023. ‘Israel/OPT: US-made munitions killed 43 civilians in two documented Israeli air strikes in Gaza – new investigation’ (5 December). <https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2023/12/israel-opt-us-made-munitions-killed-43-civilians-in-two-documented-israeli-air-strikes-in-gaza-new-investigation/>.

Blackwelder, Donald. 1993. The Long Road to Desert Storm and Beyond: The Development of Precision Guided Bombs. Maxwell Airforce Base: Air University. <https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/ADA425579.pdf>

Boeing. n.d. ‘Laser Joint Direct Attack Munition (Laser JDAM)’. <https://www.boeing.com/content/dam/boeing/boeingdotcom/defense/weapons-weapons/images/laser_jadam_product_card.pdf>.

Boeing. 2022. ‘Powered Joint Direct Attack Munition’.<https://www.boeing.com/content/dam/boeing/boeingdotcom/defense/weapons-weapons/images/powered_JDAM_product_card.pdf>.

Cruickshank, Michael. (2018). A Saudi War-Crime in Yemen? Analysing the Dahyan Bombing. Bellingcat. < https://www.bellingcat.com/news/mena/2018/08/18/19432/>.

Defence Science and Technology Group. n.d. ‘Joint Direct Attack Munition – Extended Range’. <https://www.dst.defence.gov.au/innovation/joint-direct-attack-munition-%E2%80%93-extended-range>.

Edge Group. n.d. ‘Thunder P-4’. <https://edgegroup.ae/solutions/thunder-p-4>.

Edge Group. n.d. ‘Thunder P-31 & P-32’. < https://edgegroup.ae/solutions/thunder-p-31>.

Elbit Systems. 2019. Air Solutions Catalog. Haifa: Elbit Systems. <https://elbitsystems.com/media/Catalog-Air-solutions-8-WEB.pdf>.

Elbit Systems. n.d. ‘LIZARD’. <https://elbitsystems-uk.com/what-we-do/air-space/munitions/guidance-kits/lizard.pdf>.

Human Rights Watch. (2016). Yemen: US Bombs Used in Deadliest Market Strike. <https://www.hrw.org/news/2016/04/08/yemen-us-bombs-used-deadliest-market-strike>

Ismay, John. 2024. ‘A Brief History of the 2,000-Pound Bombs Central to U.S.-Israeli Tensions’. New York Times (11 May). <https://www.nytimes.com/2024/05/11/us/israel-gaza-bombs.html>.

Jenzen-Jones, N.R. & Jack Shanley. 2021. ‘Precision Strike: A Brief Development History of PGMs’. RUSI Journal, Vol. 166 No. 5. <https://rusi.org/explore-our-research/publications/rusi-journal/precision-strike-brief-development-history-pgms>.

Jenzen-Jones, N.R. & Trevor Ball. 2024. ‘Diagnostic remnants of the GBU-39/B Small Diameter Bomb (SDB)’. The Hoplite (23 September 2024). Perth: Armament Research Services. <https://armamentresearch.com/diagnostic-remnants-of-the-gbu-39/>.

Lockheed Martin. n.d. ‘Paveway® II Plus Laser Guided Bomb’. <https://www.lockheedmartin.com/content/dam/lockheed-martin/mfc/pc/paveway-ii-plus-laser-guided-bomb-lgb/mfc-paveway-AF-pc.pdf>.

OE Data Integration Network (ODIN). ‘FT-2 Chinese Precision Guided Bomb’. US Army. < https://odin.tradoc.army.mil/WEG/Asset/FT-2_Chinese_Precision_Guided_Bomb>

Paunila, Samuel & N.R. Jenzen-Jones (eds.). 2017. Explosive Weapon Effects: Final Report. Geneva: Geneva International Centre for Humanitarian Demining.

Toler, Aric. (2018). American-Made Bomb Used in Airstrike on Yemen Wedding. Bellingcat. < https://www.bellingcat.com/news/mena/2018/04/27/american-made-bomb-used-airstrike-yemen-wedding/>

Rafael n.d. ‘SPICE 2000/1000’. <https://www.rafael.co.il/system/spice-family-1000-2000/>.

Raytheon. 2006. ‘Paveway’. <https://web.archive.org/web/20061020015711/http://www.raytheon.com/products/stellent/groups/public/documents/content/cms04_018951.pdf>.

Trevithick, Joseph. 2024. ‘JDAM-ER Winged Bombs With Seekers That Home In On GPS Jammers Headed To Ukraine’. The War Zone (3 May). <https://www.twz.com/air/jdam-er-winged-bombs-with-seekers-that-home-in-on-gps-jammers-headed-to-ukraine>.

United States Air Force. n.d. ‘Joint Direct Attack Munition GBU- 31/32/38’. Fact sheet. <https://www.af.mil/About-Us/Fact-Sheets/Display/Article/104572/>.

United States Navy. n.d. ‘JDAM Specs — USN/USMC Configurations’. Naval Air Station Patuxent River: Precision Strike Weapons Program Office (PMA-201).

Watts, Barry D. 2013. The Evolution of Precision Strike. Washington, D.C.: Center for Strategic and Budgetary Assessments.

Van der Weide, Youri; Fruedenthal, Emmanuel; Chandler, Caitlin; &Houn, Patricia. (2022). France Targeted ‘Terrorists’ with a US-Made Bomb in Mali. Witnesses Say They Hit a Wedding. Bellingcat. < https://www.bellingcat.com/news/africa/2022/04/11/france-targeted-terrorists-with-a-us-made-bomb-in-mali-witnesses-say-they-hit-a-wedding/>

Wetsig, Whitney. 2022. AFRL technology makes new weapon for sinking ships a reality. Air Force Research Laboratory. < https://www.afrl.af.mil/News/Article/3014096/afrl-technology-makes-new-weapon-for-sinking-ships-a-reality/>.

Remember, all arms and munitions are dangerous. Treat all firearms as if they are loaded, and all munitions as if they are live, until you have personally confirmed otherwise. If you do not have specialist knowledge, never assume that arms or munitions are safe to handle until they have been inspected by a subject matter specialist. You should not approach, handle, move, operate, or modify arms and munitions unless explicitly trained to do so. If you encounter any unexploded ordnance (UXO) or explosive remnants of war (ERW), always remember the ‘ARMS’ acronym:

AVOID the area
RECORD all relevant information
MARK the area from a safe distance to warn others
SEEK assistance from the relevant authorities

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